The Empire of Islam
In the Previous Episode
My recent companion essay, (“In the Beginning: Palestine and the Kingdom of Israel” ), outlined the historical and religious basis for the Jewish claim to the region currently known as Israel and Palestine. It provided an account of the history of the Judaic inhabitants of the area bounded by the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea (east to west), and from Lake Tiberius in the north down to the Dead Sea.
it was noted that the area known as “Judea” or “The Kingdom of Israel” was the birthplace of Judaism, however, over the millenia the land and the people had been subjected to constant invasion by Muslim neighbors —and later, by Papal Rome—resulting in a series of dispersals as Jews were expelled or fled “voluntarily” from war, until the population of Judea was only 10% Jewish.
Having been Jewish long before it was Muslim is a compelling claim regarding the rights to the land—despite the decline in Jewish population.
Which brings us to the Arab claim to the same region.
The Birth of Islam
The Muslim claim to that land is, in my view, equally compelling. It is based on religion and long-term occupancy, as well as the proud heritage of the Arabic/Islamic empire.
Islam itself began with the Prophet Muhammed, born in Mecca (in what is now Saudi Arabia) around the year 570 CE, in a time of social and political upheaval. Judaism was the dominant religion in and around Yemen, while Christianity held sway in the Persian Gulf. Trade routes in the region were frequently contested, tied as they were to the availability of potable water.
Against this backdrop, a group of Arab monotheists known as “renunciates” ascribed to a belief in “the all-encompassing father god Allah whom they freely equated with the Jewish Yahweh and the Christian Jehovah” [Rogerson, Barnaby (2010), “The Prophet Muhammed: A Biography,” Hachette UK]. These people viewed both Judaism and Christianity as foreign religions—misinterpretations of the true faith as established by Abraham, and centered in Mecca.
Muhammed found himself drawn to this perspective. He preached a monotheistic faith rooted in truths revealed to him by the angel Gabriel. His teachings were not well-received by the elite of Mecca perhaps in part because Mecca was home to the polytheistic Kaaba shrine, which drew pilgrims from around the Arab world and provided a significant source of revenue for the city. In 622, Muhammed moved to Yathrib (later called Medina). His influence grew; within ten years the doctrine of Arab monotheism had spread throughout the region.
This was the “hijra” - the start of the Islamic era.
By the time of his death in 632 CE, The Prophet Muhammed and his followers controlled Mecca and the surrounding areas. Inhabitants were required to pay taxes (alms) to this Arab Muslim government. His successors compiled his divine revelations into a manuscript that was called the Quran (Muhammed himself could not write).
The Islamic Empire had begun.
The Golden Age of Islam
The Abbasid Caliphate at its Greatest Extent
After the death of its founder, the Islamic Empire was briefly centered in Damascus, Syria, under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate. The Umayyad were not welcoming to non-Muslim Arabs (such as the Persians), which led to resentment among many citizens. This led to the rise of various factions, culminating in a takeover by the Abbasids, who held a much more open view to those of different faiths.
The Abbasids chose to build their capital near the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, which was accessible by numerous trade routes. They created the city of Baghdad, building roads, canals, government centers and public spaces. In addition to being accessible by two large rivers, Baghdad was also situated in a prime spot between Asia and Europe, making it perfect as a trading and cultural center. An excerpt from the writings of Yaqut al-Hamawi describes Baghdad in the tenth century (Hamilton Morgan, Michael. Lost History: The Enduring Legacy of Muslim Scientists, Thinkers, and Artists. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic, 2007, 60-61):
“The city of Baghdad formed two vast semi-circles on the right and left banks of the Tigris, twelve miles in diameter. The numerous suburbs, covered with parks, gardens, villas, and beautiful promenades, and plentifully supplied with rich bazaars, and finely built mosques and baths, stretched for a considerable distance on both sides of the river.
In the days of its prosperity the population of Baghdad and its suburbs amounted to over two [million]!* The palace of the Caliph stood in the midst of a vast park several hours in circumference, which beside a menagerie and aviary comprised an enclosure for wild animals reserved for the chase.
The palace grounds were laid out with gardens and adorned with plants, flowers, and trees, reservoirs and fountains, surrounded by sculpted figures. On this side of the river stood the palaces of the great nobles.
Immense streets, none smaller than forty cubits wide, traversed the city from one end to the other, dividing it into blocks or quarters, each under the control of an overseer or supervisor, who looked after the cleanliness, sanitation and the comfort of the inhabitants.”
*For comparison, London and Paris at this time probably had about 20,000 inhabitants, each.
The Pursuit of Knowledge
One hundred years later in 813 CE, the House of Wisdom was conceived and built by Caliphs Harun al-Rashid and his son, al-Ma’mun. This pearl of Baghdad was a space dedicated to scholarship. Experts (male) from throughout Asia and Europe were encouraged to visit and share knowledge. Special emphasis was placed on translating Greek works of knowledge into Arabic, creating a repository of wisdom in medicine, philosophy and science.
Men of all faiths collaborated peacefully. This “translation movement” was inspired in great part by the Quran’s emphasis on learning as a holy activity. In his first revelation, the angel Gabriel appeared to Muhammad and commanded him to “Read!” Muhammad replied, “But I cannot read!” The angel embraced Muhammed tightly and revealed the first five verses of the Quran:
Read: In the name of your Lord Who created
Created man from a clot
Read: And your Lord is the Most Generous
Who taught by the pen
Taught man that which he knew not
Advancements
The Islamic dynasty was particularly interested in advancing medical knowledge. As more manuscripts were translated from the Greek, the possibilities for advancement grew exponentially. Thus, the following centuries in the Arabic world were characterized by new discoveries and techniques. These included:
The first known description of the pulmonary system
The invention of the first camera, and with it, the first description of how the eye sees
The “Canon of Medicine”, a reference book that helped doctors diagnose diseases (including cancer)
An encyclopedia of surgery that was used in Europe for the next 500 years
Algebra, including the first demonstration of how to solve quadratic equations, and trigonometry
The invention of the astrolabe, a hand-held model of the universe; the foundation of quantitative chemistry
In Conclusion
The Abbasid Caliphate ruled the Empire of Islam from 750 CE until it was destroyed by the Mongol invasion in 1258. From its center in Baghdad, it encompassed most of what is now known as Afghanistan, Iraq, and Armenia, plus the entire Arabian Peninsula (which includes modern-day Israel and Palestine), northern Egypt, Tunisia and Morocco, as well as Sicily and the greater part of Spain.
Its cities were well laid out, and connected by major trade routes that served northern Africa and southern Europe. In Baghdad itself, silk, glass, tiles and paper were made for export. Ivory, soap, honey and diamonds traveled through the Caliphate on their way to European markets. Knowledge and advances made in Baghdad likewise spread throughout the African and European continents.
Clearly, the Muslim/Arab claim to the land that makes up modern-day Israel/Palestine is a long-standing matter of deep pride, based on a rich history of religion, politics and scholarship.
So…Does It Really Matter Who Was There First?
As Jodi Rudoren put it in “Looking Forward” (New York Times, June 14, 2002), “It does not, actually, help to examine what specifically started this conflagration, or the one before or the one before that, because it does, in so many ways, end up at ‘Abraham had two sons: there was Isaac, and there was Ishmael” (Isaac is believed to have been the ancestor of the Jews, and Ishmael of the Arabs).
What is important to know regarding the current war (2023-?) is how the modern State of Israel came into existence - and how that event exacerbated animosity between the Jewish and Arabic peoples in the region.
I’ll explore that in the next essay, “The Holy Land and the Fires of Hell”.
Sources:
Editors, History.com. “History of Israel”, June 30 2017
Editors, Khan Academy. “The Golden Age of Islam”. In “World History Course: Unit 3, Lesson 6”
Miller, Dr. Daniel. “‘Israel’ and ‘Palestine’: Where Should History Begin, and Should it Matter?” January 6, 2022. Australian Outlook, Australia
Rahman, Abdur and Moneim, Abdul. “A Map of the Abbasid Caliphate at its Greatest Extent. May 12, 2021. Creative Commons Att
Sinag, Nicolai and Montgomery Watt, William. “Muhammad: Prophet of Islam”. October 13, 2024. Encyclopaedia Brittanica, Great Britain.
